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contents' O. M/ N! [/ X; E* O; W6 f0 l/ D
f/ q- H8 A. J1 Introduction ................................. 19 e, {7 u9 \! Z/ k, e% p
What You Will Learn from This Book ............ 1
# f( h* @( P! W; |Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2
8 g. b/ Q; r2 s- O4 q9 f w+ tThe General Format of This Book ............... 2
/ _; h7 ] j( Y m9 V+ }$ x6 {Why Measure .......................... 32 ^) [" M6 D0 E( G5 J1 F$ ]& ?
Obtain or Validate Data ................. 3+ } Y, @# E$ o1 ~* U$ j1 d
Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5; S9 g7 q a. o
Troubleshooting ........................ 50 E& _6 ^1 {' C: k- y K
Validation or Verification ................. 7
2 z0 E9 C; ^7 M7 I3 k# _1 cTerminology ........................... 7
. R0 a, B. ^1 A" ^. L 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 11 g* h' L9 M* n& v8 N3 p. `* r: g$ b+ `
Cause No Damage ............................ 11
( Q, O2 L) X M8 H" LMeasure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11 v8 {* f8 T) j! J' F- }
Validate the Test Setup and ) Y- ^4 L4 R. I. K+ m
Measurement Limits ........................ 12: a7 \6 o! ?& g+ w: D
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 146 \: b. U4 ? x* }7 g
Noninvasive versus Invasive 5 R) e7 ]) }7 {0 n! F
Measurement ........................ 14" m5 q/ L7 P, B# D
In situ Measurement .................... 14* |8 a8 r! |! y8 M" }
Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14" d3 {8 Y f5 b; c- d6 X
Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
' V/ S# U% [& m0 E& ^: rThe Test Engineer and Contact
1 { I4 P& a7 O4 K2 XInformation .......................... 156 Z8 B2 z$ ?1 U; a7 k# @. c! ^
The Purpose of the Test .................. 167 ]: d1 m) H7 \0 j0 c* ]% |1 J
Simulated or Expected Results if 3 U: d" t; y. X) W
Available ............................ 17# `6 w3 `8 D+ x1 P9 K! @
The Date and Physical Location * u# {' o! a* q+ Z& j3 c
of the Testing ........................ 18
( h0 l) x1 _8 G9 AOperational Test Environment
6 V5 ^' x; m7 C+ pand Conditions ....................... 184 k0 B6 u3 a* C
The Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment , F* K( T& @3 I2 `$ S3 O1 P
(Including Probes) and Verification That
5 i4 z' `2 K. ]9 I+ X v2 R6 uThey Are Calibrated .................. 18/ s3 Z8 I" E$ `6 N( c- n2 {0 o! r
Setup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 191 h/ x7 z8 d, l# m$ ~
Measurement Annotations and
) X0 z, @( u, J3 R6 M* [; ^- ?Comments .......................... 20
- D- y5 r0 h- |, s, iAny Observed Anomalies ............... 206 I' j4 X, y; H1 v
+ Y" W1 C' ^& p0 h" F' x T
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21: p2 q) e; w6 ?" c1 c
Sensitivity ................................... 21
) s7 v1 L2 {* j- {Noise Floor .................................. 22
- C" U; w$ f ?( s' nDynamic Range .............................. 22
* n3 n. R9 Z1 y- i! O4 j* wNoise Density ................................ 27
3 G; `7 b( y% W, N7 pSignal Averaging ............................. 31' u/ X$ N& g& _9 G P
Scaling ...................................... 33, L" ?6 m, c$ M( a9 X5 l" y+ L6 ]7 C
Attenuators .................................. 34
5 m$ @& X$ ~; `* Q4 j% m) tPreamplifiers ................................. 35: b/ b- L/ B ^! S& s$ ]" s
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36) A) a4 r/ I3 W# d9 C( F
Measurement Domains ........................ 38
j' [4 Q5 _: H4 hFrequency Domain ...................... 38
: u7 o: a6 \* RGain and Phase ......................... 38! K# ~. n: U: k1 Y6 z B& G
S-Parameters ........................... 38
! U; ~# M6 H: kImpedance ............................. 39
- E/ p$ r/ g- j/ G% k5 rTime Domain ........................... 40
% ^* J% g' D7 t, ?8 x TSpectrum Domain ....................... 42% D- A% l6 R/ e; s J
Comparing Domains .................... 44
4 ~0 E1 x. d. {) c6 [( O" o9 ~Endnotes .................................... 462 |+ T* k" Y/ N* B; ]% D6 q
4 Test Instruments ............................. 47& Y4 e: T4 V# n: [
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector 5 U/ Q4 I2 a% F( x* @
Network Analyzers ......................... 47
g) f9 n: L+ r' t/ h5 b" e- wOMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
" i+ ?1 m) l+ w7 S4 Z5 KAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 509 R6 o8 T) @6 \/ {$ C+ o
Oscilloscopes ................................. 50 U; h! g- a& Q
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51) c2 k2 G& L/ y( Y
Rohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52
8 M& F! H; h# `* |) i' i. {Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53* ]- n1 f3 a7 H3 k ~1 S
Tektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
" P5 @6 R8 t# C: HTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 550 s) D& q) @+ ]9 M5 y, S0 T
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
, `8 y' q+ i1 B- P& ITeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
; E$ M) N% z& ]5 iTektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 589 g9 O I0 E: r' g1 D8 |4 D |6 _
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
. J2 B& p. h3 NSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59
" I% c. m5 V8 l. M5 uTektronix RSA5106A .................... 59' f$ B* \- F# a) l1 e- {
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60+ h+ d! u8 [ ]; |2 r2 x
Agilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
# t8 U; `8 H2 b: T% o3 M2 [4 RSignal Generators ............................. 62
" B8 {4 J0 f2 d# tAgilent Technologies E8257D ............. 622 T& E9 M2 e' r4 d* t/ V. Q! G
TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63# w* Y8 x8 L& ~! P
Picotest G5100A ........................ 63
" l' @1 r% d0 i2 z+ c. [9 D- H$ m3 ~0 w7 V
Tektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 63
1 O9 K4 f) b- r7 C" C' B! f: bTeledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65
' |1 d3 F- o6 Q+ cAgilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66
: h1 _: X% i2 g, g* Q2 d 5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 690 [1 G+ D$ C8 j) O
Voltage Probes ................................ 69
0 i5 |% x0 u- [1 {Probe Circuit Interaction ................. 70
. N; U" A3 Y0 a; U' BFlattening the Probe Response ............ 72
8 B7 X( G- \' R1 P, h# N3 SConfirming Measurements ............... 74
% M0 a. G5 v* J$ A- \- }Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 75
2 o$ E, s" h, lPassive Probes .......................... 77( r- x0 V/ _1 M& A! N
Active Probes .......................... 79
9 S4 L4 z: O" ?1 x! LDifferential Probes ...................... 79- o- E1 G- Y5 `5 Q0 H+ y# ^
Specialty Probes ........................ 80+ C* N+ z: u1 V8 i O
Other Connections ...................... 91& S' |; j2 G! N( h% R* x
Endnotes .................................... 913 a$ V7 w R8 k% x# _" r' X4 f
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
$ H% T' {/ d7 w# F' {* Q9 }Noise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 93
! }; @9 a5 T! N( i( I# `2 F: eInternal Noise .......................... 95
4 m- f# A* N+ J l3 [Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 952 u( r& |1 F/ A5 t M
Output Impedance ...................... 99
4 H( O, i$ I5 b. p, D0 dReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99! V6 p0 o$ g: o$ }
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
2 I' w% J3 B' A& G! kImpact on Output Impedance ............ 101' R6 k* S% c: e- M) H
Impact on Noise ........................ 102
, Z* g$ g0 A- p e3 PImpact on PSRR ........................ 102; u8 ~, u& f' B% Z
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103' H4 `2 f: ~' b! m8 Q+ K
How Poor Stability Propagates through
! B8 o- g: H: _" `the System ................................. 103
$ l, ]" J/ B- F6 ?; @Adding the PDNs ....................... 106, x4 v1 ~ @9 H
Endnotes .................................... 1081 `( g5 k( P) o( w) Z7 X. ~1 [
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109/ Z" Y( k6 j& p$ ~9 Z+ n1 K
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 109. K* L) Q$ |: c8 ~
Single-Port Measurements ............... 109( @+ i, t, g- m5 u2 ?" ?4 {5 o
Two-Port Measurements ................. 123& B% {( ]3 P* v
Current Injection Measurements .......... 139% K2 y* g# M& r: y- Z) Y/ m
Impedance Adapters .................... 142
, E2 p) q( w8 o- q8 k# Y: Q* r: bEndnotes .................................... 148
; n3 |4 j" {, Z 8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151
4 V5 r8 m, t4 N5 q& A' _Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151! z& R: B7 c8 M$ D
Control Loop Basics ..................... 1518 \- K& E; d% {% }3 ~3 D; d
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay + _* o4 a; G" Y9 u( u, i9 N: o
Margin, and Stability Margin ........... 153# E- [$ y$ l& X" h
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
; d& t6 Z+ u2 ^7 H! ]: I6 Gx+ H4 m9 @* g" g- j* D
Contents
* w y" d$ C4 S% u$ v- q9 eOpen-Loop Measurement ................ 159
0 |. R2 J) P2 v" mInjection Devices ........................ 161
7 n: D' f; n3 P ]/ VSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164
: p: c. H& I' P* `Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
* V. a1 k5 B1 J k" t7 N" mON and OFF Measurements .............. 170
% f$ f( p7 V2 {4 p: m- S$ dForward Measurements .................. 171
' ^* l# {) Y8 l2 k3 @8 Z) yMinor Loop Gain ....................... 1715 u- G" }& Y o c7 j
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174% ]/ d8 _! r2 k5 Z
Endnotes .................................... 179
) ?7 E ]9 E; h, T) O# A8 U( u8 S) V4 k, D. }; r
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
0 f, d i2 T' LMeasurement Methods ........................ 1823 X' D: C+ t5 t- C) H3 p
In-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182
0 Q' Q+ f1 e/ [; }# pDirect or Indirect Measurement ........... 1826 p0 p+ u9 Q* \" Y( A' N: H
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
7 z. Y% r5 w- [$ \, R% Q+ VLine Injector ............................ 184& V+ H5 O" V3 H; f/ X9 o3 l7 }
Current Injector ......................... 188
) E# m6 J7 J/ G/ p' ZDC Amplifier ........................... 189
, q) X9 J4 H$ j3 cChoosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189
- L2 Z% g1 @2 ^VNA .................................. 189* u( ^& K* u2 R1 _5 j& q, n
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
9 x3 u6 [. ~6 W3 q* Z. DOscilloscope ............................ 190) S2 m9 N8 d$ |- e& ^/ X
Probes and Sensitivity ................... 1909 `$ F! A- _; V( Z' ~
Endnotes .................................... 2003 b7 W# `. X, y6 D8 t
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 2017 V T( \) ?( L# D" k- y, i
Reverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 2010 j0 Q- G1 q; Z8 `8 c J) n: I
Series Linear Regulators ................. 201* }% F G: |$ d
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201: L8 T) m& Y- R8 M' g. }/ n
POL Regulators ......................... 203% f# g/ b% u. w1 z' m6 s' z. V4 I
Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
6 _; C- O5 R0 g# [% AModulating the Output Current ................ 2040 t) v7 ?4 y$ Z" f+ F' ~9 H# f
Current Injector ......................... 2057 \- ^0 g; O j4 Z/ ]
DC Bias Injector ........................ 2054 d, l# d3 z2 I) g9 l
Measuring the Input Current ................... 2058 b; V. o/ e" f1 n# H- W, i
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205. d, o- `/ U6 l! }3 P/ [
Measuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
/ A1 B& j, U2 K* D2 x+ |8 pCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
1 ~, I6 r, X# \9 F& ZIndirect Measurement ......................... 209
( ?% X+ q3 q. B3 y: _, x. hEndnotes .................................... 216
, b& o' O- v! r/ V 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 2175 V6 f) I) G& v+ k J8 W
Generating the Transient ....................... 217. a z4 B. q0 y5 v A, z3 b
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 2179 u: S' j. Q& ~$ _* l) L
Slew Rate .............................. 219: i: f P5 }( N
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221' B6 s* R0 K, h8 l) h
Contents 9 h* K$ i! R u
xi
- k6 h, ~* |8 h# @ E4 {2 IMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
* N. z$ x* A% D8 S2 G6 R( ~3 ALarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223! a2 r- B9 [9 f9 F+ Z
Notes about Averaging .................. 2248 F0 h% S- x9 O) j( Z- }2 X" H" w
Sample Rate and Time Scale .............. 226
, ]+ G) G/ z0 u* `1 u& HEndnotes .................................... 232
) M$ G5 C: j2 ~* R' P; _ 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233- f0 h, m) _" O+ B; _7 Z
Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
1 ]* ?$ J% z& y1 s3 wIn or Out of System ..................... 2345 M% ?& x' n5 r% O/ P
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234' I+ n" O4 M$ X2 {: j. X, j$ Y
Time or Spectral Domain ................. 2347 s! T3 d( \; H
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235' W1 S" o. g6 Y5 `
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235# r7 L3 L+ |$ q0 P5 T
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236' ]6 U/ B: ~8 B3 {5 r! n
Direct 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
- U; z! N% l5 \* g j) IChoosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237# ^6 V7 f' E- W+ @& }) ]# N
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 252) ?& Y9 Q+ `) X$ [" p
Endnotes .................................... 252
: h2 a/ z: }' I 13 Measuring Edges ............................. 253# a0 d# A; i1 J" F
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253
% B; g* T; \1 e0 t% Y5 D- GCascading Rise Times ................... 256/ R! u9 t# W- u$ L) n
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth
1 V" Q8 ]) B3 Q, D% Y3 P, ELimiting ............................. 257
0 E+ ?7 _/ k0 K. w$ J" h6 L/ W' rSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261. b! G% O. \3 P
Interpolation ................................. 264. h- z- }4 B k1 S$ H, U
Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265# o7 O5 X% b1 s3 z( ^
Effects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 2651 V) |( V- j% \! o
The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267# w/ b' `" Q3 E! q# A
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 2698 T& b5 b3 X6 r; K; ]$ c
Probes ....................................... 269
2 Q2 T" A: R( P" J' P: h: g- }8 t+ REndnotes .................................... 273/ [# {3 {) E" M9 d- l2 W( C5 z
14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
1 O" z4 z6 p! ]9 NThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275
5 S3 `" R9 s! @& {The Near-Field Probes ......................... 277
}) _/ i, y% z7 SProbe and Orientation ......................... 278
" s; [3 Z* O8 c1 m5 S( ]6 XThe Measurement Instrument .................. 281
/ [% g2 }! [* t- `, j- {! ~Spectrum Gating .............................. 281: a$ {8 u, u2 `; T2 L7 H
Endnotes .................................... 2950 Q: q L7 R5 V' ]3 e
15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
1 w, I. ^9 W& T ^* o, [* b: _Time Domain ................................. 297
) S- Q: |8 x5 @4 w2 m: S4 nTime Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
( @7 Z0 O+ W8 ]+ l, K) S8 P8 |! iCalibration ................................... 299
E7 Y" g2 ~2 a2 h3 r' SReference Plane ............................... 300; s: V8 h4 d: V/ z# g9 j
xii
/ {+ q: Q* m5 u$ e Contents
2 l" j$ }# v$ c+ ^' qSetting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303# L6 E0 L+ z9 K6 c* [
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 3047 v: [7 z" f4 T
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 3078 e6 Y+ s$ j* D2 p
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
" j& A5 b# M: _Endnotes .................................... 316" E: |) \4 m" J( @' j* F
Index ....................................... 319 |
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