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1 Introduction ................................. 1
: k& k0 O- i* Q# WWhat You Will Learn from This Book ............ 10 I6 ?5 R4 M. g, Q
Who Will Benefit from This Book ............... 2/ l! W' H5 v, _8 @. F& ]
The General Format of This Book ............... 2
0 j" d# F! L N1 _" N% SWhy Measure .......................... 3
8 h$ i' c% z+ g# KObtain or Validate Data ................. 3
' @ @# I; l/ `Design, Selection, and Optimization ....... 5
0 C& t- x6 v" ATroubleshooting ........................ 5
3 r- k# n/ M) w7 {4 i, rValidation or Verification ................. 7
1 h# O% i; b( p" b1 HTerminology ........................... 7
7 L; w* I& A2 p/ b1 X, Q7 K. m$ j 2 Measurement Philosophy ..................... 114 L& m0 r$ ?% q* F8 S
Cause No Damage ............................ 113 R6 K. D/ ^; w+ y7 H# y
Measure without Influencing the Measurement ... 11
8 x1 l# ^: s; }! j3 `+ bValidate the Test Setup and % w& c% F2 ^" \! Z9 J. d6 s
Measurement Limits ........................ 12% w' ~& D. r( H
Measure in the Most Efficient and Direct Way .... 14# U+ Y! Q7 P2 d5 E# V' z* c
Noninvasive versus Invasive
2 ~; C$ j8 m7 G1 ~- u( HMeasurement ........................ 149 K3 a& m u7 @: y. @0 V% G( E1 S
In situ Measurement .................... 14
6 S' P: E, P" y" [+ r7 {Indirect versus Direct Measurement ....... 14! ` I( l& e! k+ H9 Z0 ^! L
Document Measurements Thoroughly ........... 15
N6 d6 k0 G; Q! X( }0 ~The Test Engineer and Contact 3 b# y6 D+ F) Q4 `& [3 t
Information .......................... 15) [8 o/ [! m& Q+ s! S
The Purpose of the Test .................. 16
* t8 T! j$ a1 W4 J1 X; W$ BSimulated or Expected Results if
: x3 A9 R. F$ U+ d) c1 T6 V, t& Q; y" BAvailable ............................ 17
! Z# U2 ^! c& p/ \The Date and Physical Location 8 K, A: v& C* E. A, R
of the Testing ........................ 18
( x2 K! D: U! f/ U+ k ` E) C7 HOperational Test Environment 7 Q$ [' t' E/ c2 v: h
and Conditions ....................... 18
. y0 Z5 k% ]% w8 R. B yThe Model of Each Piece of Test Equipment 9 K B- f" h/ x' C
(Including Probes) and Verification That , B; b1 P# N+ R" G O( ~
They Are Calibrated .................. 18
# i) b1 F1 g, {2 U3 f6 ESetup Diagram and/or Picture ............ 195 D( n# y; f- S2 d) d- x
Measurement Annotations and * _7 D, ?: ^" o! h( U
Comments .......................... 20+ E6 @* {" L8 q; ]6 u" c: k
Any Observed Anomalies ............... 20
# G# f9 F7 K8 y* z. j5 `- J( o/ u/ l: t7 a: y3 R& a6 X
3 Measurement Fundamentals ................... 21 Z* b, V/ q* M2 e
Sensitivity ................................... 215 E- h4 H* n9 H+ O2 [
Noise Floor .................................. 22
- a2 L8 D8 @, x7 N, C: a, jDynamic Range .............................. 22
2 p* ?( q5 i# Y7 O( p# j! BNoise Density ................................ 27
3 S: p6 K# ~4 OSignal Averaging ............................. 31. J8 l8 E" q9 N5 V9 w( [: o5 S( W" @
Scaling ...................................... 33
7 A/ X5 X9 p' Y8 q5 a' ]' nAttenuators .................................. 34
* m& @! x& {3 F, `4 k& S" Y+ YPreamplifiers ................................. 35+ n5 n0 x, U( f1 M) Y9 H: n
Linear versus Log Display ............... 36
+ _: d q; A. V, N( e" WMeasurement Domains ........................ 38
' ?2 e2 s' A& Q5 y3 [8 \) Y. kFrequency Domain ...................... 38" a" ~% @9 E# Y, J
Gain and Phase ......................... 38
* h" s- C% B9 A5 \- b) q( `S-Parameters ........................... 38
+ o( ]. |9 P8 Z) |Impedance ............................. 39
) l# |" \; a4 F6 H7 s. `. \: }Time Domain ........................... 40
* A% k3 n* X! Z, L; HSpectrum Domain ....................... 42
0 K3 f' V$ A i! V% l6 UComparing Domains .................... 44! V. L. @0 \6 q" V3 l4 V( n1 b1 g
Endnotes .................................... 46
4 w9 u# o I( P& y% _" b: x- p: R9 Q 4 Test Instruments ............................. 47* {8 }) x5 f3 H: k8 t
Frequency Response Analyzers and Vector , p! ]% O g' N) R
Network Analyzers ......................... 479 s. r1 E# b; F. P) W) B g6 E. {
OMICRON Lab Bode 100 ................ 49
2 D4 I6 m! {8 B; X% C# AAgilent Technologies E5061B ............. 50& j9 V' L$ S$ r6 O( m; { p- c
Oscilloscopes ................................. 505 x' {7 K* F W# Q k
Teledyne Lecroy Waverunner 6Zi ......... 51
3 A1 a# l" y$ R" ]0 iRohde & Schwarz RTO1044 .............. 52" r. @' Z8 y g9 a
Tektronix DPO7000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
; Z; g2 V% I8 ~2 m( ~5 nTektronix DPO72004B ................... 54
* e0 O% o1 e$ M' Y6 NTeledyne Lecroy Wavemaster 8Zi ......... 550 Z3 r2 V4 V8 ]# m+ o6 Z4 A( A
Tektronix MSO5204 ..................... 56
6 o# m. h+ A1 A" @; O: }) @* i7 J5 s2 c) OTeledyne Lecroy HDO6104 ............... 56
8 O1 X! o2 O' @ z% R `Tektronix MDO4104-6 ................... 58* J8 i5 ~" A$ {* ?* e/ [
OMICRON Lab ISAQ 100 ................ 59
0 F% v8 @1 c; m) L+ i/ tSpectrum Analyzers ........................... 59, P' [% ^! w, ^
Tektronix RSA5106A .................... 59" q2 j" D: u, h
Agilent Technologies N9020A ............. 60
* I: O' O& B/ C( @: cAgilent Technologies E5052B ............. 61
$ F# \, v, O5 x+ g- I8 C2 ISignal Generators ............................. 62# [/ F2 ?# D1 o; y: \* X
Agilent Technologies E8257D ............. 62
" @2 B6 B3 f/ ^* L- ]TDR/TDT S-Parameter Analyzers ............... 63
: b6 _* w# ~/ }9 t$ K, ePicotest G5100A ........................ 63
: r+ Z3 \* y$ F1 M
# y* w1 i& v; g% Q2 ^( G% ZTektronix DSA8300/E8010E .............. 639 K2 r7 |" i; q6 g) I5 ?
Teledyne Lecroy SPARQ 4012E ........... 65( g5 d7 p" T) B2 d' N9 ]
Agilent Technologies E5071C ............. 66" i: o. y: o/ |
5 Probes, Injectors, and Interconnects ............ 697 H1 m r2 e6 E1 S+ h" m
Voltage Probes ................................ 69
/ v" D+ D, q7 E) sProbe Circuit Interaction ................. 706 E+ s# j+ \/ \% @
Flattening the Probe Response ............ 72& C$ p2 o5 v( c" V w
Confirming Measurements ............... 74& {; `) v/ y4 v9 h9 r2 t! P7 z$ t+ |
Selecting a Voltage Probe ................. 753 c9 @. k5 `% O. ^6 O" t
Passive Probes .......................... 77
. h) V& S9 ~" P4 F* n2 @4 s3 |Active Probes .......................... 798 Q2 ^8 j8 z( B _
Differential Probes ...................... 79! `( h' q) H0 V6 E; ^
Specialty Probes ........................ 80
4 j# g6 H4 O7 H: SOther Connections ...................... 91
2 z, b% |, A8 }: @; _Endnotes .................................... 91( D2 t9 t! q* s# Q
6 The Distributed System ....................... 93
& B# x6 Z8 Y) N" u* W; mNoise Paths within a Voltage Regulator .......... 931 c/ V' m' l$ A# E: d
Internal Noise .......................... 95$ u" D7 K. w' J/ r% F4 n
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) ...... 95
/ _, m; g; L0 u' k( {6 A- U( mOutput Impedance ...................... 99
3 J- G% i# D) CReverse Transfer and Crosstalk ........... 99! I" c% K& R5 B7 `! n
Control Loop Stability ......................... 101
' l- |9 j) {9 I# }1 y5 |/ fImpact on Output Impedance ............ 1011 s/ _# O1 _5 S% J3 m$ F4 f" y
Impact on Noise ........................ 102$ `, Z0 P3 S! h
Impact on PSRR ........................ 102& z. G# X* ~0 w; `) ^; n
Impact on Reverse Transfer ............... 103, J/ [+ `7 ?4 a8 C8 g% n/ ^
How Poor Stability Propagates through . l! \+ T; X0 c \. e5 |5 C( _/ Y
the System ................................. 103
- P5 k+ L1 p; M5 X! yAdding the PDNs ....................... 1065 G; n- C {: |! X& U& k) B3 n6 V' `
Endnotes .................................... 1080 i5 L% P) G2 _ N
7 Measuring Impedance ........................ 109
) ~ Y' [" Y; {! ~+ KSelecting a Measurement Method ............... 109
; h/ G7 Y) t# C9 x$ @& S4 ZSingle-Port Measurements ............... 109
9 y5 E' f, [: C" q+ F fTwo-Port Measurements ................. 123
! B* h% p0 c- z) o1 I% a+ s* p8 nCurrent Injection Measurements .......... 1390 Y7 F5 N( {) j
Impedance Adapters .................... 1426 `$ y8 s% Y( E* r3 {
Endnotes .................................... 1480 [, `' O0 _) R4 o
8 Measuring Stability .......................... 151; { K- O& t D o) n
Stability and Why It Matters .................... 151+ _* ^8 w! ]+ U* V! q8 o* e5 v
Control Loop Basics ..................... 1514 S& g+ T6 i3 U3 D" g# N) J
Gain Margin, Phase Margin, Delay
0 O' m7 @; |! m% Z* N0 ~$ F* uMargin, and Stability Margin ........... 153' k5 ?0 m: M) H5 [& @
Bode Plots and Nyquist Charts ........... 154
# R2 L, I% @3 _: Dx
$ s' U/ J) C) L. p5 V0 P! B Contents& m* ~# O9 m1 r2 L( ~; X$ ]
Open-Loop Measurement ................ 159% T0 z9 V7 T2 Q! u n
Injection Devices ........................ 161
8 R; j6 L3 j6 Z8 BSmall Signal versus Large Signal .......... 164# d# Z( p2 I, Z) D
Closed-Loop Measurement ............... 169
3 K3 O6 O" R e, nON and OFF Measurements .............. 170/ g1 j$ T' @/ v# V' T s% ]
Forward Measurements .................. 171
! U4 H) X1 F" j- p0 X7 {' z* ^Minor Loop Gain ....................... 1714 W0 G |, f$ h( N
Noninvasive Closed-Loop Measurement ... 174
; o- C' P# i5 @Endnotes .................................... 1794 \9 Z( h9 w4 \3 f1 m
+ o# C8 f# u0 Y
9 Measuring PSRR ............................. 181
$ n+ J3 j7 ^3 mMeasurement Methods ........................ 182
& `3 \6 ?: Z. R8 z! Z( @) AIn-Circuit or Out-of-Circuit ............... 182" G& K& l( O' k
Direct or Indirect Measurement ........... 182- L* i3 [) I1 `, j9 v1 o
Modulating the Input ......................... 183
2 b% v C) d) r' |, i5 nLine Injector ............................ 184
1 n8 O& e; H- p, LCurrent Injector ......................... 188
9 l& S5 {7 [+ A+ R: O4 }DC Amplifier ........................... 189
' U( w5 T5 J6 t3 E% ^Choosing the Measurement Domain ............. 189! j4 {& J6 y% R, K
VNA .................................. 189( Q# S8 r1 c. L. m3 }
Spectrum Analyzer ...................... 189
! o2 ^% H! z# n& ]# NOscilloscope ............................ 190
2 `+ @' H E# F+ m2 B2 fProbes and Sensitivity ................... 1901 x' r( p5 c4 G2 S: i
Endnotes .................................... 200" D0 h; Q+ q7 i: B
10 Reverse Transfer and Crosstalk ................ 201
5 g* ^+ Y& p( l/ e$ VReverse Transfer of Various Topologies .......... 201
) Q2 ?1 g0 Q) u( c& T8 p' T5 a0 i% C! HSeries Linear Regulators ................. 201. ~- F5 J5 e/ d+ c8 g" H
Shunt Regulators ....................... 201
. T4 ]/ g4 x2 t5 q5 APOL Regulators ......................... 203
2 }$ D( `5 [) @. y: ?Operational Amplifiers .................. 204
" C0 P/ Z! o! K/ WModulating the Output Current ................ 2049 ?0 f, W+ D0 V# }9 a/ U9 o9 M
Current Injector ......................... 205
" O: e9 W4 f, x, CDC Bias Injector ........................ 2052 R7 k6 Q9 l6 K! [: ]
Measuring the Input Current ................... 205/ g/ _" v) Q/ U& H, @
Calibrating the Measurement ............. 205
: ?" Y& Y; g E- ?6 I9 n- R, NMeasuring the Input Voltage ................... 207
2 z4 P; C5 Z. B4 `! }( p0 W f- fCalibrating the Measurement ............. 209
. V" D2 {6 E" r G: N2 AIndirect Measurement ......................... 209
( [7 s2 ]) h% G! S' y$ Z, c; _Endnotes .................................... 216
: l* o+ ^. m2 @. r- @# U3 D 11 Measuring Step Load Response ................ 217& a7 s7 Y% i" ]' R. T2 Z( E8 w2 W
Generating the Transient ....................... 217# v& H3 e6 j1 O0 J# t3 e6 l
Current Injector versus Electronic Load .... 217. \, z% J& J, J* r0 j
Slew Rate .............................. 2191 N% J* N0 d4 o ~6 L
Current Modulation Waveform ........... 221+ o7 b2 I% t0 j/ f5 [
Contents
' z5 z3 O# c" u) {, G3 e1 [xi
3 _* J: R: `. D3 C* ^0 N. GMeasuring the Response(s) ..................... 223
# f* r2 c3 X. M, u3 PLarge Signal versus Small Signal .......... 223' M5 G& o) l- t6 v3 X8 ^8 [: f
Notes about Averaging .................. 224
f5 y- F9 f) B* ]* XSample Rate and Time Scale .............. 2268 j% D3 t' a T. @% n U
Endnotes .................................... 232
- B4 F4 U6 G# g 12 Measuring Ripple and Noise .................. 233
+ K- f0 d3 i9 ]Selecting a Measurement Method ............... 234
4 |) P p) T7 U* y* W- {! cIn or Out of System ..................... 2341 v4 K9 K7 q% d1 c! B5 B- f
Direct or Indirect ....................... 234
9 Y; z& w# K. YTime or Spectral Domain ................. 234, R# \/ J9 N: O- W
Connecting the Equipment ..................... 235 r+ G0 C4 v/ Z9 q
Passive Scope Probes .................... 235+ W4 h3 r1 v4 A8 f6 N% e0 }
Active Scope Probes ..................... 236
- C# p) |$ B. s. v) I6 j/ I [$ GDirect 50-W Terminated Connection ....... 236
( x2 e/ v- E" ]Choosing the Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237; K3 T2 t+ Z4 T; n6 J( ^
Averaging and Filtering ....................... 2523 V$ S V/ n% D1 }4 S
Endnotes .................................... 252' q6 G9 e; {' E5 ]5 x; I
13 Measuring Edges ............................. 2538 a. t8 D$ `& f' t0 s* s
Relating Bandwidth and Rise Time .............. 253& _5 j, N1 R: e3 }" K
Cascading Rise Times ................... 256) m; x$ y$ b/ h' a! g
Impact of Filters and Bandwidth ( K& P" y5 m/ w+ n/ A2 E- p+ V
Limiting ............................. 257
6 A/ M2 L$ N" P: Q' r* g0 SSampling Rate and Interleaved Sampling ........ 261
7 r" m7 W ]/ O1 JInterpolation ................................. 264
- u$ k. r' q; ^) |Coaxial Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
' d/ E3 C7 V$ [1 WEffects of High-Frequency Losses ......... 265
2 s4 `8 q8 _$ ^The Criticality of the Probe Connection .......... 267' C: n& }4 y, ~
Printed Circuit Board Issues ................... 269 Y: A) b/ }. s: `* X# U
Probes ....................................... 269
0 g1 f% K6 X1 v( y+ F. ?Endnotes .................................... 273
: B" O3 b4 O$ \ 14 Troubleshooting with Near-Field Probes ........ 275
$ j k: D5 a/ _9 P0 IThe Basics of Emissions ........................ 275/ W- i+ |" w" j5 i4 _/ Q
The Near-Field Probes ......................... 2775 ]* M+ ]# t" `- O
Probe and Orientation ......................... 278
) O I A+ i+ V z1 `The Measurement Instrument .................. 281
* L0 p+ j9 C! DSpectrum Gating .............................. 281
' \) e c4 j! k' ^! h% xEndnotes .................................... 295
/ O6 V- x: z* a& R0 V 15 High-Frequency Impedance Measurement ...... 297
2 v1 Y. @; F$ r# N" D1 t3 h- MTime Domain ................................. 297
* l3 M5 d6 x' T* |# o4 e1 {Time Domain Reflectometry .............. 298
, H2 R F1 h3 }: x. PCalibration ................................... 299; q: q9 j8 L8 v1 \8 Q/ [) Q
Reference Plane ............................... 300
1 a. Y- N# i& T" ]0 c/ x. Kxii
3 d% {$ |% s: I Contents+ }6 e5 @9 ?; B& V5 W$ r! W y
Setting TDR Pulse Rise Time ................... 303. F0 L' ? S' A9 m
Interpreting TDR Measurements ................ 304! h h; P: f- v" f
Estimating Inductance and Capacitance .......... 307 F8 H& Q2 P2 s8 P4 |
S-Parameter Measurements .................... 314
0 e- {+ P7 a0 o# M" x. R4 N5 pEndnotes .................................... 316( [( u6 V( h6 b8 l/ D1 @
Index ....................................... 319 |
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